नारी मुक्ति आन्दोलनकी पुरोधा अक्का महादेवी

 

                                  डॉ.गोमा

                                     सातगाउँ, गुवाहाटी

      नारी मुक्ति आन्दोलन का शोधकर्ताहरूले यसको थालनीको श्रेय पश्चिमी जगतलाई दिएको देखिन्छ। पुरुष प्रधान सामाजिक व्यस्थाप्रति विद्रोहको टडकारो स्वर भारतभूमिबाट पनि न उठेको होइन। यस विषयमा शोधखोज कम भएको, गर्न नखोजिएको र पश्चिमलाई गुरु मान्ने मानसिकताले हो, हामिले हाम्रा मनीषिहरूलाई उचित सम्मान न दिएको झैं लाग्छ। पूर्वेली सामाजिक व्वयस्था छक्क पर्दो छ। एकातिर हाम्रो वैदिक धर्म र परम्पराले यत्र नार्यस्तु पूज्यते रमन्ते तत्र देवता भन्दै समाजमा नारीको वन्दनीय स्वरूपलाई दर्शाउन खोज्छ भने अर्कातिर त्यहि समाजले नारीलाई पुरुषभन्दा कम महत्वपूर्ण मान्दै उसलाई पूर्ण मानवीको दर्जा दिन युगौंदेखि हिच्किचाएको देखिन्छ।

      वर्तमान युगमा शिक्षाको उज्यालो फैलिएतापनि समाजमा नारी पूर्ण रूपमा सुरक्षित कतै पनि छैनन्। कतै आफ्नै स्वजन बन्धुबाट पीडित छन् भने कतै पर पुरुषबाट पीडित छन्। नारीले शिक्षाको चुली छोएता पनि पितृसत्तात्मक सोच जहाँ थियो त्यहिँ छ। विकासका लागि सोचमा सन्तुलन हुन अनिवार्य छ। सोचमा सन्तुलन नहुँदा नै समाजमा नारी प्रताडनाका जघन्य घटनाहरू घटेको देखिरहेका छौं। अस्सी प्रतिशत पुरुष वर्ग घर-बाहिर जतिनै नारी स्वतन्त्रताको पक्षधर भएता पनि घरभित्र उहि एकांतन्त्री शासकको भूमिकामा उत्रिएको देखिन्छ, यो कटुसत्य हो। पुरुष समाजले आज पनि आफ्नी पत्नी, दिदी, बहिनीलाई स्वतन्त्ररूपमा हिँड़ेको पचाउन सक्दैन। प्रायजसो पुरुषले स्वतन्त्रतालाई स्वच्छन्दताको रुपमा बुझेको पाइन्छ। समाजले छोरीलाई घर बाहिर नजाने, जताततै एक्लै नहिँडने शिक्षा दिन्छ तर छोरालाई अर्काकी छोरीको सम्मान गर्नुपर्छ भन्ने कुरा सिकाउँदैन। आज पनि नारी यस्ता एकांगी सोच भएका पुरुषहरूका जघन्य कृत्यको शिकार भइरहेका छन्।

      समान अधिकारको माग गर्दै यस क्षेत्रमा समय समयमा नारी स्वयं न उत्रिएका होइनन्। पितृसत्तात्मक व्यवस्थाप्रति विद्रोहमा ओर्लिएका प्राचीन भारतीय नारीहरूमा मीराबाई, अन्दाल र अक्का महादेवीलाई आजको नारी समाजले अध्ययन गर्नै पर्छ। यस लेखमा हाम्रो समाजबाट छुट्टै भारतको कर्नाटक राज्यमा जन्मलिएकी शैव भक्तिन अक्का महादेवीको परिचय दिने प्रयास गरिएको छ जसले पुरुष सत्तात्मक व्यवस्थाप्रति विद्रोह गर्दै भक्तिको मार्ग अँगालेकी थिइन्।

      अक्का महादेवीको जन्म शिवमोग्गा जिल्ला,  कर्नाटकको उडुतडी गाँउमा 12 औं शताब्दीमा भएको थियो। सानै देखि उनि धेरै गम्भीर, तार्किक, शीलवती र ईश्वर भक्तिमा असीम आस्था राख्ने र भगवान शिवलाई आफ्नो आराध्य मान्दै उनकै भक्तिमा डुब्ने गर्दथिन्। सात वर्षको उमेरमा उनले शैव भक्ति सम्प्रदायमा दीक्षा लिइन्। 16 वर्षकी शोडषी अक्का महादेवी असीम सौन्दर्यकी धनी थिइन्। उनको उमेरका अन्य केटीहरू आफ्नो सम्भावित दुलहाको सपना देख्न लागे। यस अवस्थामा उनले शिवलाई नै आफ्नो पतिको रूपमा आराधना गर्न लागिन्। शिवलाई उनले चन्नमल्लिकार्जुन (जूहीको फूल जस्तो कोमल र सुवासले भरिएको) को नामले आराधना गर्दै उनैसँग आफ्नो विवाह गर्ने आफ्नो अटल निर्णय आफ्ना माता-पितालाई सुनाइऩ्।

        बाल भक्तिन अक्का महादेवीको असीम सौंन्दर्यमा कर्नाटक प्रान्तका राजा कौशिकाको नजर पऱ्यो। उनले उनका माता-पितासँग विवाह गर्ने प्रस्ताव राखे। राज शासनको कठोर आज्ञाअघि उनका माता-पिताले झुक्नु पऱ्यो। उनि राजासँग विवाह गर्न बाध्य भइन्। विवाहअघि राजाले उनको भक्तिमा बाधा न दिने र उनको स्वतन्त्रतामा बाधा न बनने वाचा गरे। विवाहपछि विस्तारै-विस्तारै राजाले आफूले दिएका वचनहरू तोडदै गए। त्यतिमैत्रै नभएर उनीमाथि पति भएका नाताले पुरुष अधिकार जमाउन खोजे। उनले राजालाई आफ्नो अडान सुनाउँदै भनिन् - “म शिवकी भैसकेकी छु। तपाईँले मलाई विवाह गर्न बाध्य गर्नु भयो तर म तपाईंलाई आफ्नो पतिको रूपमा कहिल्यै पनि स्वीकार गर्न सक्तिन। मेरा पति त साक्षात शिव हुन्।“

        शिवप्रति आफ्नो अनन्य प्रेम भाव प्रकट गर्दै उनी भन्छिन् -

दिनमा चारै प्रहर
म तिम्रो शोकमा डुबी रहन्छु
चार पहर रातमा
तिम्रैनिम्ति बौलाई दिन्छु

दिन-रात तिमिलाई नै सोच्छु

भएँ रोगी सरी एकोहोरी

ओ मल्लिकार्जुन!
जबदेखि तिम्रो प्रेम

जन्मियो मेरो हृदयमा।

बिर्सिएँ मैले

निन्द्रा, भोक प्यास।

(अक्का महादेवी और उनकी कविताएँ: गगन गिल, समालोचन, वेब पत्रिका, सेप्टेम्बर, 2021, नेपाली अनुवाद -लेखिका)

        मानव स्वतन्त्रताकी पक्षधर अक्का महादेवी समाजले नारी शरीरको दैहिक सौन्दर्यलाई मात्रै  महत्व दिएको र नारीमाथि एकाङ्गी अधिकार जमाउने पुरुषसत्तात्मक वृत्तिको घोर विरोधमा उभिइन्।  आफ्ना पतिको व्यवहार देखेर उनलाई घोर घृणा लागेर आयो। यसै समय उनले सांसारिक विषय वासना र पुरुषसत्ताप्रतिको विरोध गर्दै आफूले लगाएका सबै राजसी लुगा समेत सबै गरगहना त्यागेर राजदरबार छोडिन्। सर्वाङ्ग नग्न रूपमा जय चन्नमल्लिकार्जुन भन्ने नारा लगाउँदै उनी एक्लै निस्किन्।

        ईश्वरले मानवलाई यस धरतीमा नाङ्गै जन्माएको हो र नग्नतानै जीवनको यथार्थ हो भन्ने कुरालाई प्रष्ट पार्दै उनी लेख्छिन् -

लजाउँछन् मानिस
पुरुष हो या स्त्री
खुस्किए यदि
लाज छोपेको लुगा।

यदि व्याप्त भए जीव जगतमा
मुखविहिन प्रभु
कोबाट लजाउँछौ तिमी?

समस्त जगत जब
आँखा हुन् प्रभुका
देख्छन् कण-कण जगतका
के लुकाउँछौ, के छोप्छौ?

(गगन गिल, समालोचन, वेब पत्रिका, सेप्टेम्बर, 2021, नेपाली अनुवाद -लेखिका)

        अक्का महादेवीले ईश्वर बाहेक पर पुरुषको व्याख्या आफ्ना वचनमा यसरी गरेकी छिन्। विवाह गर्ने प्रसंगमा आमालाई जवाफ दिँदै भन्छिन् -

आमा

अन्य पुरुष

कोमल पत्तामा लुकेको काँडा हो

म उसलाई छुन सक्दिन
न जान सक्छु उसको छेउ

न गर्न सक्छु भरोसा
न भन्न सक्छु मनको कुरा

आमा,
सबैको मुटुमा भाला छ
म कसैलाई अंगालो मार्न सक्दिन
सिवाय मल्लिकार्जुनलाई।

 

(अक्का महादेवी और उनकी कविताएँ: गगन गिल, समालोचन, वेब पत्रिका, सेप्टेम्बर, 2021)

        त्यसपछि उनी शिवका भक्तहरूको आश्रयस्थल कल्याण नामक स्थानमा गइन् र ‘वीर शैव’ नामक भक्त मण्डलीमा सामेल भइन्। त्यहाँ भक्ति, दर्शन र समाज सुधार लगायतका विभिन्न विषयमा खुला बहस गर्ने मञ्च ‘अनुभव मण्डप’ मा महादेवीले निर्भय भएर आफ्नो उपस्थिति दिन लागिन्। उनी त्यहाँ दिनहुँ हुने विचार-मन्थन सभामा सन्त-महन्तहरूसँग आफ्ना गहकिला विचारले सबैलाई मन्त्रमुग्ध पार्न लागिन्। उनका तात्विक, सामाजिक, लैंगिक, धार्मिक र दार्शनिक वक्तव्यले सबैको मन छोयो। एउटी भक्तिन, दार्शनिक र समाज सुधारकको रूपमा उनी प्रसिद्ध भइन्। समाजले उनलाई सम्मान स्वरूप 'अक्का' उपाधि दियो जसको अर्थ हो वयोज्येष्ठ वा 'दिदी'। अक्का महादेवी तत्कालीन शैव सन्त बसवन्ना, चेन्ना बसवन्ना, प्रभुदेवा र मादिवलय्यको सत्संगमा रहिन्। यसको प्रभावले उनको भक्ति अझ परिपक्व हुँदै गयो। उनले  सगुण भक्तिको प्रचार गरेको देखिन्छ। 

        राजमहल छाड़ेपछि अक्का महादेवीले आफ्नो शेष जीवन एक साध्वीका रूपमा मन्दिर र गुफामा बिताउँदै शिव भक्तिमा लीन भइन्। उनले सम्पूर्ण जगतलाईनै शिवमय देखिन्। उनले कण-कणमा परमलाई देखिन्। हरेक रुखमा कल्पवृक्ष हरेक झारपातमा सञ्जीवनी, प्रत्येक स्थानमा तीर्थ, प्रत्येक जलमा अमृत थियो र प्रत्येक ढुङ्गामा चिन्तामणि देखिन्। स्वयंलाई चिनेपछि उनले आफ्नो हरेक सासमा, शरीरका प्रत्येक अंगमा पनि परमको सुगन्ध अनुभव गरिन् र यही सन्देश जगतलाई दिइन्। उनले साधनाको मार्गमा कठोर भन्दा कठोर परीक्षाको माग गरीन्। उनी आफुलाई र आफ्नो सहनशीलतालाई चिन्न चाहन्थिन्। यसरी शिवसँग आफ्नो परीक्षाको माग गर्दै उनी भन्छिन् -

प्रभु!

मलाई भिखारी बनाइ देउ
हाथ फैलाउँ म
भीख माग्न

कुनै हात अघि न आओस्

भीक्षा दिन।

कसैले दिएमा

खसोस् त्यो धरतीमा

त्यसलाई उठाउन

निहुरिउँ म

कुनै कुकुर आओस्

झम्टेर मेरो हातबाट

खोसि लगोस्

हे मल्लिकार्जुन!

(अक्का महादेवी और उनकी कविताएँ: गगन गिल, समालोचन, वेब पत्रिका, सेप्टेम्बर, 2021, नेपाली अनुवाद -लेखिका)

        अक्का महादेवीका आध्यात्मिक, सामाजिक, व्यवहारिक र दार्शनिक 300 भन्दा बढि वचनहरू (संदेशमूलक कविताहरू) छन्। यी जम्मै बोलचालको कन्नड भाषामा लेखिएका छन्। उनका वचनहरूमा अर्थको गम्भीरता र गेयता देख्न पाइन्छ जसलाई आज विद्यालय एवं विश्वविद्यालयको पाठ्यक्रममा पढाइन्छ। 

        अक्का महादेवीको जीवन साहस, आत्मविश्वास र एकनिष्ठ साधनाको शक्तिको साक्षी थियो। उनले शिव साधनाका निम्ति राजमहलको सुख त्यागिन्। नारीलाई पर्दा प्रथामा राख्ने सामाजलाई चुनौति दिँदै प्रत्येक मनिसलाई आत्मान्वेषण गर्ने र ईश्वरत्वमा पुग्ने अधिकार छ भन्ने कुराप्रति अडिग रहिन्। उनी एक क्रान्तिकारी, समाज सुधारक, एक वक्ता, महान भक्त र एक महान कवयित्री थिइन्। उनलाई कन्नड की मीरा भनेर पनि चिनिन्छ। उनी सन् 1160 मा श्री शैलममा भगवान शिवको मूर्तिमा एकाकार भइन भन्ने मान्यता छ। यसरी अक्का महादेवीले तत्कालीन सामाजिक रुढिप्रति विद्रोह गर्दै नारीका निम्ति भक्तिमार्ग खोलिदिएको दिएको देखिन्छ। नारी अधिकारका लागि उनले देखाएको साहस युगौं-युगसम्म समाजले याद राख्ने छ।  

सन्दर्भ श्रोत

1. अक्का महादेवी और उनकी कविताएँ: गगन गिल, समालोचन, 2020

2. आरोह भाग 1, सीबीएसई बोर्ड

3. An Epitome of Feminism – Akka Mahadevi - Raggi Mudde, Karnataaka.com,    23^rd  September, 2011

4. Akka Mahadevi: Shiva in her soul - The Hindu, B Ramadevi, May 2016

5. https://www.britannica.com/topic/feminism

6. https://www webdunia.com

 

 

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 Dr. Goma Devi Sharma (Adhikari) (Published in Gorkha times in 2020)

By launching his epic Sabari in the mists of many books pouring with themes of women’s dignity, honor and existence, poet Rewati Raman Timsina has exhibited his progressing outlook. Since this epic has compromised with certain trains of an ideal epic prescribed in the epic tradition, some critics are reluctant to call it an epic proper. The reluctance, however, is baseless because with the change of time, and coming in of newer approaches to deal with the world, the old standard need not always be the yardsticks to judge modern creations. Instead, it will be worthwhile to analyze the values embedded in the work.

Viewed on the basis of these facts, Sabari by Rewati Raman Timsina is out and out an epic. Its division into various cantos, presence of a formidable protagonist, a clear, linear plotline encompassing a time from life to death, description of nature, and such other characteristics are present in it. Sabari, the protagonist of the epic, is a devoted hero, and the epic describes her entire life, from birth to her demise. The storyline is divided into 17 cantos, and nature has been described in a figurative language, in accordance with time and context. If viewed metrically, it may not be a perfectly metrical epic; instead, it consists of rhymed lines. Therefore, there is no question of alleging it to have tempered with metered lines. We can say, it has borrowed from the metrical tradition, for meters like Shikarini and Anustup are emulated, at least in their rhythm, by almost all the epics written in the Eastern poetic tradition.

1. Plot

As described in the Ramayana, Sabari, the poor Bhilla woman, has been waiting to have an audience with Lord Rama for ages. When one fine day, Lord Rama stands before her in reality, she is overwhelmed, and out of great devotions, she serves him tasted berries, to ensure that her much awaited Lord gets only the sweetest of the fruits. The Ramayana discussed nothing more than this about Sabari. It indeed is an extraordinary power on the part of a poet to be inspired by such a brief story, and write a full-length epic. It also exhibits the faculty of research in him. The story also discusses in length the setting in Bharatbarsha, mores and practices of the Bhillas, Sabari’s childhood days, her marriage, her migration from home, her refuge as the disciple of Sage Matanga, her audience with Lord Rama, the description of the Navadha system of devotion, Rama’s blessing on Sabari, the permission to abandon her physical existence as willed, the rendering of her body into ash in flames etc. constitute the major plotline. The story proceeds in a descriptive style. Its capacity to keep the readers bound, and their curiosity intact is a significant characteristic of the epic. 

2. Characters

Sabari, the daughter of a Bhilla, is the protagonist of the epic. Born to a Bhilla family living in the forest of Dandakaranya, Sabari is quite shrewd right from her babyhood days. She is curious and bright, asking several questions to her father all the time. Besides being inquisitive, she also loves animals very much. She rebels against the practice of animal slaughter and meat eating prevalent in the Bhilla community. When she comes of age, her marriage is set. But she is unhappy, considering the practice of animal sacrifice undertaken during wedding ceremonies. As rebellion, she leaves her home and moves elsewhere. Enduring several spells of hardship, young Sabari arrives at the ashram of Sage Matanga. She stays there, learning, meditating, and waiting for an audience with Lord Rama. Finally, after having accomplished her mission, she abandons her body there. This way, Sabari has been depicted to be a rebellious, animal-loving, and a morally upright character.

Sabari’s parents, friends, Sage Matanga, Lord Rama and others are minor characters who contribute to the forward motion of Sabari’s story.3. Setting

Since the story of Sabari is borrowed from mythologies, the exact time of the story is unknown. The description of the locations appears here and there as the habitat of the Bhillas and the forest of Dandakaranya. As for example, the following verses indicate the location of the story:

Trees with immense beauty in Dandakaranya appear
Pristine woods, gardens and ponds, worthy to admire
The Bhillas appear in the groves, both men and women;
Hunting for meat, they are seen in diverse locations. (page 1)

The poet has made a beautiful description of the location and environment of the Bhilla’s settlement. He has also made a captivating description of the site of meditation inside the forest. He has artistically handled the description of the external and internal environments. Through his words, he is successful in foregrounding the mental status of Sabari in front of his readers:

Says to herself, if I marry, the meek will get slaughtered They would survive if my wedding is for reasons cancelled

I won’t marry at any rate; I make such a pledge;
I leave home and become homeless! Lord, I’m in your refuge! (p. 21)

In the same way, there are occasions when low ebbs infect Sabari’s thoughts. She sometimes considers her own steps sinful. The poet has presented her spiritual conflict in a beautiful language:

I went sinning like rogues; an accursed sinner I am
Which crime has yielded this; why I am enduring shame?
Friends have left and kiths are gone; I am much defamed
Meanings have transpired; all labor has gone in vain.   

4. Motif

It is an old practice to write literature, featuring minor characters from scriptures, appreciating their existence. There are writers who have written long volumes, featuring minor scriptural characters like Karna and Urmila as protagonists. Sabari, the epic, is a book of the same fashion that gives continuity to such a tradition. By writing this epic, the poet has manifested his progressive worldviews. Exhibiting all aspects of Sabari’s life before the society is not the only motif of this epic. The poet has also attempted to foreground the absurdities prevalent in our society.

5. Style

On its surface, the epic in discussion looks like a metrical work. But when observed minutely, it has compromised with rules of prosody in many instances. Yet, there are traits of classical meters like Shikharini and Anustup. But we don’t find the entire epic adhering to any strict metrical rule, though there is ample presence of Shikharini and Anustup meters. At any rate, the poet has maintained rhymes in almost all the verses.

Since it is an epic, the poet has made ample use of rhetorical devices to make the presentation lively. There are many instances of alliterations, metaphors, repetitions, personifications, imageries and such other devices. As for example:

Crown decked with peacock features, brilliantly gleaming

Leaders decked in many forms, readied for the meetings! (p. 3)

In the Nepali verse, one can notice the repetition of /m/ sound in the first line, with the use of words like mutuk, mastak, mayur etc., giving rise to musical alliteration.

In the same way, we can consider the line: “Where, why, how and in which matter?” (p. 6). This line also makes good use of alliteration, with the sound /k/ in Nepali, and incidentally, the /h/ sound appearing in the English translation of the line.

Personification

Time rolls on its own accord, cyclic is its troupes
Touching nature with its hands as rain and dewdrops. (page 9)

These lines make a wonderful use of personification. In them, time-cycle, rain and dewdrops have been personified. In the same way, the following lines can be cited:

Since the Sun God would wake up and rise from the east
Nature may draw all the time, curtains just for him
Making the east gaily crimson and the face so rosy
It prepares to hail the Sun God, bathed in showers dewy. (p. 26)

At many places, the poet has made use of an extremely figurative language. Such words enable a picture to pose itself before the eyes of the readers. This way, the poet has proven that he is quite skilled in making imagist expressions. Here is an instance:

Rosy tinge had surmounted on the Bhilla woman

Hands were slender; fingers added to her acumen! (p. 9)

In the same way, the poet has made enough use of other figures of speech.

Images

Wonder it was: a flame, from a pyre rose upward
Flying higher to the sky, slowly getting dispersed. (p. 127)  

6. Language:

The language used in the epic Sabari is comprehensible, natural, and easy Nepali. We can notice that the author has picked words and dictions to suit the disposition of the characters. The epic also has words derived from Sanskrit, but that does not impede the comprehensibility of the epic. Even in the use of words, the poet has exhibited his linguistic capability. He has also made good use of onomatopoeic words:

With water filled to brim, she giggled with her friends
And got all her frock and her loin drenched. (p. 56)

7. Word Choices

1. Tatsam (Sanskrit words):

Sanskrit words like Brahma muhurta, pratah, kritya, shwan, saumya, pipasa, kuktuk, panigrahan, payodhara, Krishna–kaya, bharyata, etc have occurred amply in the epic. There are locations where the poet has also tempered with the forms of the words in order to maintain the rhyme scheme. Examples are ‘basati’ for ‘basti’, ‘saaugat’ for ‘saugat’, ‘samadarashi’ for ‘samadarashi’, ‘srajinchhan’for ‘sirjinchhan’, and ‘asukhi’ for ‘dukhi’. But this cannot be considered an anomaly, because poets have been found doing this for stylistic effect in poetry.

• Dialogic form: Much of the epic is written in a descriptive style. Dialogues have also been amply used to push the story ahead:

One of the girl friends says, “My friend, you are quite lucky!”

For, you are getting as your mate, the best of the buddies! (p. 14)

***

Untouchable I am by caste, how a Bhilla should stay back?
The Brahmans and the sages take penance with the greatest faith!
A Shudra I am, low and weak; what should I do, going there? (p. 29)

***

Sabari, our moment to meet the great Lord is at hand
See how a wave of joy is mounting on every one! (p. 87)

This way, the epic Sabari, is an extremely well-made epical work. Its focus on women’s dignity and honor makes its theme quite poignant. The themes of animal love, denouncement of animal slaughter, and a call for compassion for them are salutary. There also is a manifest theme of rebellion from Sabari against wrong practices and traditions. Social issues like caste-system, untouchability, hatred of women and gender discrimination are associate themes of the epic.

[Dr. Goma Adhikari, a Hindi graduate from Manipur University, holds a gold medal for being first-class first in BA (Hindi Honors), and another gold medal for being first-class first in MA (Hindi).  She is also a post-graduate in Nepali literature from Guwahati University. Her seminal works in publication include Bharatiya Nepali Sahityako Vishleshanatmak Itihas, the analytical history of Nepali Literature in India, Nepali Bhasha ra Sanskriti and Manipurma Nepali Sahitya: Ek Adhyayan. 

 

An Interview Published in Gorkha Times in 2020

[Dr. Goma Adhikari, a Hindi graduate from Manipur University, holds a gold medal for being first-class first in BA (Hindi Honours), and another gold medal for being first-class first in MA (Hindi).  She is also a post-graduate in Nepali literature from Guwahati University. Her seminar works in publication include Bharatiya Nepali Sahityako Vishleshanatmak Itihas, the analytical history of Nepali Literature in India. Mahesh Paudyal of The Gorkha Times caught up with Dr. Sharma, and had a conversation on various aspects of Nepali literature in India. Here is an edited portion of the conversation.]

Histories of Nepali literature in India have been written in the past too. Books by Ghanashyam Nepal and Ashit Rai might be considered, for example. What, then, was the need for a new history? 

Of course, histories had been written in the past too, but then, they were limited to information delivery, and lacked elaborate analysis. The basis they had taken up for periodization and nomenclature too lacked rational grounding. Histories, thus written, failed to stand in par with literary histories of other languages. They didn’t respond to the needs of changing times and lacked a contemporary color. And worst of all, most of those histories failed to address writers from remote locations within the territory of India, specially the north-eastern states that are homes to a burgeoning mass of writers. 

Opinions differ as to when Nepali writing in India actually started. There are critics who think, Nepali political exiles started it from Banaras and areas in its neighborhood, while recent researches push back the history to a date even earlier. How old is the history of Nepali writing in India? What are some of its landmarks?

It dates back to 1744 AD when Raghunath Bhat wrote his first poetic work Aasish. Viewed this way, we have made a journey of around three centuries now. Over the years, India has led the development of various genres in Nepali literature. Gokha Bharat Jeevan, published since 1887 from Banaras under the editorship of Motiram was perhaps the first literary journal in the Nepali language. It was from India that Motiram Bhatta, for the first time published a portion of Ramayana by Bhanubhakta. This journal marks the inception of various genres in the Nepali language, including ghazal, and criticism. Pahal Man Singh Swar’s “Atal Bahadur”, the first tragic play in the Nepali language was written and performed in India in 1908.  “Mahendramalli,” (1918) an essay by Sambhu Prasad Dhungel was published in Chandrika, a literary magazine published from India. This essay has been regarded as the first personal essay in the Nepali language. The first modern story in our language was “Annapurna” by Rup Narayan Singh, published in 1927 from India in Gorkha Sansar. The first one-act play Atmabhiman by an anonymous playwright was published in Tarun Gorkha around 1928 AD. The first collection of the story too was contributed by India, in the form of Katha Sukum, edited by Ishwar Baral, and published in 1935 AD. I consider these some of the major landmarks of Nepali literature contributed by writers writing from India. 

What major differences have you noted between literary history of Nepal, and history of Nepali literature in India? 

Nepali literature in Nepal is a product of Nepal’s own political, economic, social, and religious realities. Nepali writing in India, similarly, emerges from the ground realities true to India. Since the two countries have different realities, their literature are obviously different, though the influence of Nepali literature on the writings of Nepali-speaking people in India has been partially detected. Histories of Nepali literature written in Nepal too are dogged by information mania, and they lack analytical insights. As far as my upcoming book is concerned, it has not compromised analysis and rational justification in favor of information accumulation. This approach, I hope, will be useful even for literary historians of Nepal. 

In the vast domain of Indian territory, writers are scattered over a huge land area. Experts claim, India lacks a connecting link that binds all these writers together. What do you say on this?

I think the observation is partially wrong, because, the boom of information technology has made the country a connected whole. It is true that though India is large, it has writers in every nook and corner. It too is true, there are regions whose writers have not been linked with the mainstream. The most important thing, therefore, is that we need to establish a connecting link ourselves. We must hold the capacity to harness electronic and social media . This will, I believe, remove all gaps in communication, if they exist. More regional and local conventions should be taken up to ensure frequent meeting and networking. 

What is the distinctive feature of Nepali writing in India?

The writings of the Nepali-speaking population in India document the experiences of those people in different historical and political conditions. Much of the writing of Indian Nepalis is underscored by their experiences in unfavorable political, economic, and social conditions, that discriminate against the minority in charge of being people of foreign origin. The entire chunk of Indian Nepalis form a minority, and for decades, they have been fighting for recognition and constitutional address. This is a major thrust in their writing.  As a test case, you can take up the contemporary writing by writers in Siliguri, Darjeeling, Assam, Kalimpong, and Manipur. Since these write-ups have sprung from India, the Indian color they bear, too, is a distinctive feature they hold. 

How has the state machinery assisted the production, promotion and development of Nepali literature in India? Are writers satisfied with such assistances? 

It will be unwise to say, the state has not assisted, but there are certain discrepancies, to acknowledge frankly. It is an unanswered question as to how much we have attempted to draw the attention of the state authority in areas that have provisions. The inclusion of Nepali language in the eighth schedule of the Indian Constitution, the arrangements of Sahitya Academy awards for Nepali books, inclusion of Nepali as a subject in the school, college and university curricula are proofs of governmental concerns for the development of Nepali literature in India.  But state provisions for publication and promotion of books is lacking. The Centre for Indian Language, Mysore is doing a salutary job in this regard. There are provisions; we need to find and harness them. 

India does have many world-class translators. But then, we have not noticed a single work by Nepali-speaking Indian writer that has drawn a global acclaim. How do you explain this paradox?

The observation is true. In fact, our writing has a limited range. We lack global imagination. For want of such outlook, much of our works oscillate within the limits of our domestic issues. If we the authors and translators lift ourselves to  the global level, we can make a difference. Today, Cambridge University Press has published Lil Bahadur Chhetri’s classic Basain; this confirms that we do have literature of the global standard. But then, we need to march in the correct tuning. 

What initiatives do you deem necessary to link Indian literature in Nepali language with the global network of Nepali-speaking writers?

We need to take up translation at war footing. Diasporic experiences need to be documented, and such literature should be globally disseminated.  Organizational cooperation, frequent literary tours and travels, regional literary meets and seminars, collective publications and joint promotions of writings, if managed well, will bring Nepali writers from across the globe together. This will enhance cooperation and understanding. 

What are your advices to the young writers of Nepali-speaking populace, now writing from the Indian social 

I advise the young writers to produce such write-ups, which will have the guts to stand in par with the global standards. For the same, they need to cultivate a wide perspective. They need to make honest literary pursuits; their posterity will obviously follow them. I also advise them to create literature that bears the fragrance of their soil. They also need to devise a network of writers, for which, social and electronic media might be brought to optimum use. They need to ensure that their voice is heard, and the responsibility is theirs. 

Thank you Dr. Sharma. Good luck for your upcoming work.

Many thanks. I appreciate you for giving me this rare opportunity.